A. The Nature of Science and Life

1. Describe the process of science and how it differs from other areas of learning.

2. Describe the strengths and weaknesses that are inherent to the scientific process.

3. Differentiate between inductive and deductive reasoning.

4. Describe various ways that scientists collect data and arrive at conclusions.

5. List and explain the steps in the scientific method.

6. Distinguish among the following terms and discuss the various misconceptions associated

with their meanings: law, theory, fact and hypothesis.

7. Discuss the validity of various sources of scientific information in the media (for example

by contrasting science magazines with science journals).

B. Characteristics of Life

1. Discuss how biology relates to other sciences (chemistry, earth science, physics, etc.) and

how the subsets and specialties of biology (embryology, marine biology, ecology, etc.)

relate to the study of life itself.

2. Describe the unifying themes that recur throughout the study of biology.

3. Describe why evolution is considered the major unifying theme in explaining the diversity

and unity of life on Earth.

4. Recognize that DNA is the universal genetic language of all living organisms.

5. Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels that characterize biological systems and explain

the relationships among these levels.

6. Explain how the properties of life emerge from differential biological organization.

7. Name and describe the distinct characteristics of living things.

8. Support the statement that "life is a constant struggle against the Second Law of

Thermodynamics."

9. Describe the interdependency of producers, consumers and decomposers.

10. List the major categories of living things (kingdoms, domains, etc.) and describe the

characteristics of each.

A. General Chemistry

1. Define matter.

2. Describe the structure of an atom.

3. Differentiate among atoms, ions, elements, molecules, compounds and isotopes.

4. Describe the molecular structure of chemical bonds and why some bonds are stronger than

others.

5. Discuss how an atom’s structure determines how many, and what kinds of bonds it can

form.

6. Describe why both weak and strong chemical bonds are important in biological reactions.

7. Name the four elements which make up the great majority of living organisms.

8. Recognize how abundant water is in cells and organisms and why it is so important in life.

9. Describe the molecular structure of a water molecule.

10. Describe the importance of the polarity of water.

11. Describe how hydrogen bonds form between water molecules and how this gives water

unique properties.

12. List the characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen

bonding.

13. Describe the dissociation of water into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions and how this

influences pH.

14. Describe the pH scale and why it is an important factor in biological systems.

15. Give examples of common acids and bases.

16. Define buffers and their importance to life.

B. Organic Chemistry

1. Differentiate between organic and inorganic molecules with regard to their structure,

function and importance in living things and non-living things.

2. Describe the connection of organic molecules in your diet, and synthesis of organic

molecules in your cells.

3. Describe in general why carbon forms the backbone of all organic molecules.

4. Describe in detail the basic structure and function of the four major classes of organic

molecules found in living things, and give examples of each.

5. Describe the importance of chemical reactions to maintaining life.

6. Differentiate between reactants and products in chemical reactions.

7. Differentiate between dehydration and hydrolysis reactions.

8. Recognize that chemical reactions cannot create or destroy matter, but only rearrange it.

A. Recognize the cell as the basic unit of life.

B. Discuss the Cell Theory and its significance to you as an organism.

C. Discuss how your body can be viewed as a colony of interdependent cells working together to

maintain homeostasis for the colony.

D. Describe why there are upper and lower limits to cell size.

E. Describe the various cell organelles and cellular structures and their functions in both

prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

F. Differentiate between the structure of a cell and a virus.

G. Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane and the endomembrane system.

H. Describe how the structure of the cell membrane allows various cell-to-cell interactions.

I. Describe the structure and function of the cytoplasm and cytoskeleton of cells.

J. Compare and contrast the structure and function of cilia and flagella.

K. Describe the location and function of DNA in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

L. Identify the roles of the four major classes of organic molecules in the cell.

M. Identify and describe the different mechanisms of intra- and extracellular transport within cells

and between cells.

A. Enzymes and Energy

1. Define metabolism.

2. Compare and contrast the role of catabolic pathways and anabolic pathways in the energy

exchanges of cell metabolism.

3. Recognize the level of complexity involved in biochemical pathways.

4. Differentiate between reduction and oxidation reactions.

5. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.

6. Distinguish between open and closed systems.

7. Explain the general meanings of the first two Laws of Thermodynamics.

8. Give examples of various forms of energy.

9. Construct a general diagram of energy flow through the biosphere.

10. Recognize that the energy that keeps us alive is found within the chemical bonds between

atoms.

11. Differentiate between producers (autotrophs) and consumers (heterotrophs).

12. Explain why highly ordered living organisms are not a violation of the Second Law of

Thermodynamics.

13. Describe the general structure and function of ADP and ATP in a cell.

14. Describe how ATP powers cellular work.

15. List the three separate parts of an ATP molecule and indicate to which of the four classes of

macromolecules each belongs.

16. Describe the ATP/ADP cycle.

17. Describe the general function of an enzyme during cellular metabolism.

18. Recognize that enzymes are proteins and how incredibly important they are in catalyzing all

chemical reactions in living organisms.

19. Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity.

20. Compare cellular respiration and photosynthesis in terms of processes, reactants, products

and relationship to the ecosphere.

B. Cellular Respiration

1. Describe the overall chemical equation for cellular respiration.

2. Outline the major events of glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle and electron transport

phosphorylation.

3. Describe the structure of a mitochondria.

4. Recognize in a general manner how the carbon skeleton of glucose changes during cellular

respiration.

5. Describe the role of oxygen in cellular respiration.

6. Describe the significance of electron movements during oxidation/reduction reactions.

7. Describe the various ways that electrons are transported within cells.

8. In aerobic respiration, identify the process by which most of the ATP in the cell is

produced, and the role of oxygen in this process.

9. Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

10. Explain the function of fermentation in those cells that carry it out.

C. Photosynthesis

1. Describe the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis.

2. Outline the major events of the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent

reactions.

3. Distinguish between photosynthetic and chemosynthetic autotrophs.

4. Describe the structure of a chloroplast.

5. Describe the dual physical nature of light (wave/particle), including definitions of photons

and the electromagnetic spectrum in your description.

6. Indicate which wavelengths of light chlorophylls reflect and which they absorb.

7. Discuss environmental factors that would influence photosynthesis rates.

8. Identify the reactants and products of photosynthesis.

9. Explain why photosynthesis is important for the Earth’s ecosystems.

10. Explain the role of pigments in absorbing light at different wavelengths.

11. Explain the role of photosystems and electron transport systems in the light-dependent

steps of photosynthesis.

12. Explain how oxygen is produced in photosynthesis.

13. List the products of the light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis.

14. List the main steps in the Calvin Cycle.

15. Explain what plants do with the organic products of photosynthesis.

16. Describe how photosynthesis moderates the Greenhouse Effect.

17. Compare and contrast the chemical reactions of photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

A. Mitosis

1. Explain the importance of reproduction in maintaining the continuity of life by describing

mitosis and meiosis with regard to differentiation and development. Appreciate and

describe the diversity of reproductive strategies.

2. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction especially with regard to the genetic

differences between parents and offspring.

3. Describe the various forms of asexual reproduction in prokaryotic and eukaryotic

organisms.

4. Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotes.

5. Describe the various reasons why cell division is necessary.

6. Differentiate between normal cells and cancer cells.

7. Apply the concepts of mitosis, meiosis, fertilization, haploid and diploid to a wide diversity

of eukaryotic life cycles.

B. Meiosis

1. Define "homologous chromosomes" and describe where they originate and what occurs to

them during mitosis and meiosis.

2. Explain how cell division differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

3. Discuss the general steps in the eukaryote cell cycle.

4. Define chromosome, chromatin, chromatid and centromere.

5. Explain the steps of the eukaryote cell cycle including mitosis with respect to what happens

to the chromosomes.

6. Compare the different kingdoms of eukaryotic cells with respect to cell division.

7. Explain the difference between duplicated and unduplicated chromosomes in terms of the

amount of DNA in each.

8. Describe the steps of meiosis with respect to the chromosomes in the "parent" cell.

9. Explain the distinction between mitosis and meiosis with respect to the type of cells

produced, chromosome number in the cells and the use of cells produced by each process.

10. Explain how independent assortment, crossing over and random fertilization contribute to

genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.

11. Differentiate between somatic cells and germ cells.

12. Differentiate between oogenesis and spermatogenesis.

13. Distinguish between gametes and zygotes.

14. Describe the various problems that can occur when mitosis or meiosis do not occur

normally.

15. Describe how errors in meiosis can lead to polyploid species.

16. Discuss how errors in meiosis and mitosis can lead to the evolution of new species.

17. Describe the diversity of reproductive strategies in living organisms.

18. Describe the differentiation and development that begins in the zygote and continues

throughout embryonic development.

A. Classic Genetics

1. Describe the contribution of Gregor Mendel to modern genetics.

2. Explain how Mendel’s theory of inheritance differs from a "blending" model of

inheritance.

3. Describe how "incomplete dominance" differs from "blending inheritance."

4. Describe the terms gene, allele, locus, genotype, phenotype, dominant alleles, recessive

alleles and codominant alleles.

5. Define Mendel’s laws of segregation and of independent assortment.

6. Demonstrate how to analyze monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using basic principles of

probability.

7. Determine the mode of inheritance for human genetic disorders based on analysis of

simple pedigrees.

8. Identify human genetic disorders that relate to each of the following types of inheritance:

autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant and X-linked recessive.

9. Recognize the significance of the activities of the homologous chromosomes during

meiosis which influence hereditary traits.

10. Discuss how Mendel’s principles are modified through processes like mutations, multiple

alleles, pleiotrophy, polygenic inheritance, etc.

11. Describe the chromosomal theory of inheritance.

12. Describe in a general manner the effect of the interactions of environment and heredity on

an individual’s phenotype.

13. Interpret a pedigree chart.

14. Describe how a karyotype is made and its function.

15. Describe the various methods of testing for genetic disorders.

16. Describe the various rules of probability which apply to inheritance.

17. Define the concept "random event" and explain why it is significant that allele segregation

during meiosis and fusion of gametes at fertilization are random events.

18. Distinguish among nondisjunction, aneuploidy and polyploidy.

19. Describe how alterations in chromosome structure can occur during meiosis and the

probable effects of these alterations.

20. Recognize the historical significance of the Modern Synthesis.

21. Discuss why there will probably be a greater demand for more genetic counselors in future

job markets.

22. Solve genetics problems involving one or two autosomal traits and sex-linkage traits.

23. Describe the concept of gene linkage and how crossing over can unlink genes.

24. Describe the inheritance of various genetic disorders.

25. Describe the inheritance of gender and sex-linked disorders.

26. Describe the probable evolutionary origin of the Y chromosome.

27. Explain how a lethal gene (i.e., sickle-cell anemia) can be maintained within a population.

28. Differentiate between an individual’s genome and the total number of genes available in the

gene pool of a population.

29. Discuss the positive and negative implications associated with genetic screening.

B. Molecular Genetics

1. Discuss the historical experiments that led scientists to conclude that DNA was the material

that carried genetic information from generation to generation.

2. Discuss the historical experiments that led scientists to elucidate the structure of the DNA

molecule.

3. Explain the functions of DNA in living things.

4. Discuss the overall structure of the DNA molecule.

5. Explain the nature of DNA replication as semi-conservative.

6. Explain the basic structure of the chromosome in terms of the DNA and protein present in

the chromosome.

7. Explain how DNA and the three kinds of RNA molecules differ from each other with

respect to their structure and function.

8. List the basic steps in protein synthesis and explain where in the cell each occurs.

9. Discuss the diversity of proteins and why an understanding of their synthesis is important.

10. Describe the structure of proteins in terms of their primary, secondary, tertiary and

quaternary structure.

11. Define the terms codon and anticodon.

12. Use the genetic code table to "translate" a sequence of messenger RNA bases into a

polypeptide.

13. Define mutation and distinguish among deletions, duplications, translocations and

inversions.

14. Trace how mutations can affect the phenotype of the organisms.

15. Recognize that mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation.

16. Compare and contrast protein synthesis between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

17. Discuss the evolutionary significance of a universal genetic code.

18. Explain in what ways the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.

19. Describe gene regulation in prokaryotes.

20. Explain the general structure and function of operons.

21. Distinguish between structural and regulatory genes.

22. Describe gene regulation in eukaryotes.

23. Describe some of the basic techniques used in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA

research.

24. Discuss the risks and benefits of recombinant DNA research and genetic engineering.

25. Discuss the potential positive and negative applications of the Human Genome.

26. Discuss the potential positive and negative aspects of cloning.

27. Discuss the potential positive and negative aspects of genetic screening.

28. Define bacterial plasmids and how they are used to manufacture human gene products.

29. Describe how restriction enzymes and DNA ligase are used by bacteria and by genetic

engineers.

30. Describe how gel electrophoresis is used for sorting DNA "restriction fragments."

31. Describe various applications for "restriction fragments" (i.e., "DNA fingerprinting,"

DNA probes, PCR, etc.).

32. Discuss the positive and negative aspects of "transgenic" or "genetically modified (GM)

organisms."

33. Discuss the positive and negative aspects of "Gene Therapy."

34. Recognize the ethical issues that are associated with genetic engineering and recombinant

DNA technology.

A. Recognize the fact that the idea of evolution was first conceived by early Greek philosophers

more than 2,000 years ago.

B. Explain the main observations that led scientists to accept evolution as an observational fact of

nature.

C. Explain how Darwin’s concept of evolution differed from that of Lamarck.

D. Describe the contribution of Alfred Wallace and Charles Lyell to the theory of evolution.

E. Describe in detail how the fossil record, biogeography, plate tectonics, comparative anatomy,

comparative embryology and molecular biology are used as major pieces of evidence that

support the theory of evolution.

F. Contrast catastrophism and uniformitarianism or gradualism.

G. Describe the evidence for continental drift and explain how it has played a role in

macroevolutionary change.

H. Describe how radiometric dating works.

I. Be able to describe the major events in evolutionary history by diagramming a geologic time

scale of life on Earth.

J. Distinguish between analogous and homologous traits.

K. Differentiate among microevolution, speciation and macroevolution.

L. Define natural selection and give examples where natural selection has been observed in

nature.

M. Explain how evolution may be viewed in terms of changes in the gene pool of a population.

N. Explain the role of mutations in evolution.

O. Describe how genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, mutations and natural selection

can lead to microevolutionary change.

P. Describe the biological species concept and its limitations.

Q. Explain how subspecies can be used as evidence that evolution is currently occurring.

R. Distinguish between allopatric and sympatric speciation.

S. Distinguish between pre- and post-zygotic species isolating mechanisms.

T. Discuss examples that illustrate evolution happening today.

U. Explain the "practical" significance of evolution.

V. Distinguish between artificial and natural selection.

W. Explain how microevolutionary change can affect a gene pool.

X. Explain why the population is the smallest biological unit that can evolve.

Y. Distinguish between the scientific and common use of the word theory.

Z. Describe the evolution of a polyploid species like wheat.

AA. Differentiate between the "gradualist" models and the "punctuated equilibrium" models and

discuss their validity.

BB. Describe the significance of the Hardy-Weinberg formula and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

CC. Explain how patterns of extinction can affect the evolution of surviving forms.

DD. Describe how resistance develops in bacteria, weeds, insects, etc.

EE. Describe the evidence that indicates single-celled life forms originated from chemical

evolution and when it occurred.

FF. Describe the evidence that indicates multicellular life forms originated from single-celled life

forms and when it occurred.

GG. Describe the evidence that indicates that oxygen was not present in the Earth’s early

atmosphere and why oxygen later became abundant.

HH. Using the concept of oxidation-reduction reactions, explain why chemical evolution is not

likely to produce any new protocells/precells today.

II. Discuss the endosymbiosis theory for the evolution of eukaryotes.

JJ. Describe the significance of the DNA that is found in mitochondria and chloroplasts and

how it relates to the DNA in the nucleus.

A. Discuss the reasons for having a classification system in biology.

B. Distinguish between systematics and taxonomy.

C. Describe the Linnaean system of binomial nomenclature.

D. Compare and contrast the five-kingdom scheme of classification with the three-domain

classification scheme.

E. Discuss the relationship between modern classification schemes and macroevolution.

F. Describe the main characteristics of each of the kingdoms of life.

G. Enumerate how many species have actually been counted on Earth today.

H. Enumerate the estimates of how many species there might actually be present on Earth today.

I. Discuss the reasons for the difference in the number of species on Earth that have actually been

counted and the estimate of species that are actually alive today.

J. Discuss the importance for life on Earth of representative organisms from each kingdom and

their "practical" and "environmental" significance.

K. Compare and contrast each of the kingdoms in terms of cell structure and characteristic

adaptations found among the members of each kingdom.

L. List and describe the structural components of a typical virus.

M. Discuss the basic mechanisms by which viruses replicate.

N. Describe how a virus recognizes the host cell and why a virus is host-specific.

O. List characteristics that viruses share with living organisms and explain why viruses do not

fit the usual definition of life.

P. Differentiate between prokaryotic chromosomes and eukaryotic chromosomes.

Q. Describe how genetic recombination occurs in bacteria.

R. Explain how bacterial conjugation differs from sexual reproduction in eukaryotic organisms.

S. Describe the diversity of the structure, nutritional habits and reproductive habits of

prokaryotes.

T. Recognize the fact that not all bacteria are pathogens and many are useful ecologically,

medically and industrially.

U. Describe the evolutionary history of prokaryotes.

V. Describe the evolutionary history of protists.

W. Describe the diversity of the structure, nutritional habits and reproductive habits of the

protists.

X. Differentiate between unicellular, colonial and multicellular life-styles.

Y. Describe the medical and ecological impact of protists.

Z. Describe the evolutionary history of plants.

AA. Describe the diversity of the structures, nutritional habits and reproductive habits of plants.

BB. Describe the anatomy and physiology of an angiosperm flower and discuss why the flower

is the main reason that angiosperms are the most abundant type of plant on Earth today.

CC. Describe the agricultural, ecological, medical and industrial impact of plants.

DD. Describe the evolutionary history of fungi.

EE. Describe the diversity of the structure, nutritional habits and reproductive habits of fungi.

FF. Describe the ecological, industrial and medical impact of fungi.

GG. Give examples of symbiotic fungal associations.

HH. Describe the evolutionary history of animals.

II. Describe the diversity of the structures, nutritional habits and reproductive habits of animals.

JJ. Describe the agricultural, ecological, medical and industrial impact of animals.

A. Define population, carrying capacity, biotic potential, exponential growth and logistic growth.

B. Describe the history of human population growth.

C. Describe the "Demographic Transition" model.

D. Differentiate between population growth in More Developed Countries and Less Developed

Countries.

E. Describe how a population’s age structure influences population growth.

F. In a general manner discuss the social, economic and political problems associated with

regulating the human population.

G. Distinguish between density dependent and independent factors.

H. Differentiate between the common use of the word ecology and the science of ecology.

I. Define habitat, community, ecological niche, ecological succession, coevolution, keystone

species, resource partitioning, competitive exclusion.

J. Discuss the problems associated with "introduced species."

K. Discuss the types of interactions among organisms in a community.

L. Discuss the structure of ecosystems including abiotic and biotic factors.

M. Describe the major environmental factors that dictate the community structure of the biomes.

N. Describe the physical aspects of the Earth that influence seasons, global air circulation,

precipitation, winds and ocean climates.

O. Describe the major terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

P. Describe various symbiotic relationships between species and discuss how this is an

example of CO-evolution

Q. Differentiate between primary and secondary succession.

R. Define biomass, primary productivity and biological magnification.

S. Define the main trophic levels.

T. Trace the flow of energy through ecosystems.

U. Describe how the Second Law of Thermodynamics influences the shape of the ecological

pyramids.

V. Describe the various biogeochemical cycles in ecosystems.

W. Define biodiversity and explain why biodiversity is important for human survival.

X. Describe the main causes of the loss of biodiversity.

Y. Describe ecological changes brought about by human activities locally and planet-wide.

Z. Discuss the applicability of ecological concepts of human populations.

AA. Describe the various methods of biodiversity conservation.