Some Basic Concepts in Islam

 

Background and History

The word Islam is derived from the triliteral root SLM, which means "submission" or "peace," in this case, something to the effect of "the peace that comes through submission to God." A Muslim, therefore, is "one who submits." Semitic language patterns (Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew) are interrelated and very similar to one another: the Hebrew Shalom ("peace"), for example, is derived from the same triliteral root (iSLaM, muSLiM, SaLaM, ShaLoM).

The central human/historical figure of Islam is the prophet Muhammad (570-632 CE). According to tradition, in 610 CE Muhammad heard a voice that called upon him "to recite." "What shall I recite?" he asked. The answer came in the form of revelations and visions from God (Allah) through the angel Gabriel over the next twenty-plus years, beginning in Mecca, in what we know today as Saudi Arabia. For twelve years Muhammad preached Allah's message in Mecca; but because of the increasingly hostile reaction to his message, Muhammad was forced to flee to Medina (Yathrib) in 622 CE. As this was the pivotal time in the history of Islam, the Muslim calendar regards the year 622 CE as the year 1 (the year of Hijrah, or "migration"). There he developed and nurtured a large following and an army that, after eight years of struggle for the very soul of Arabia, defeated his opponents at Mecca. Upon his victorious return to Mecca in 630 CE, Muhammad purified the holy Kaaba (discussed below) by destroying its idols, condemning its polytheistic practices, and re-consecrating it to Allah, the one and only God. As the Islamic Confession goes, "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is his prophet." It is therefore both inaccurate and irreverent to refer to Islam as "Muhammadanism," as Westerners have traditionally done, for this places the emphasis on Muhammad, and not on God. As a prophet, Muhammad is but the channel or the vehicle for the revelations of Allah. With virtually all of Arabia under his control, Muhammad returned to Medina where he died in 632 CE.

Doctrines and Practices

What was this message that Allah revealed to Muhammad? Tradition holds that Muhammad was the human instrument through which Allah recited (through Gabriel) and created the basic scriptural text of Islam: the Qur'an. Qur'an (sometimes spelled Koran) means "recitation," in reference to (a) the divine recitation to Muhammad; (b) the divine call for Muhammad to recite or proclaim this message to the world; and (c) the belief that the Qur'an is best expressing its divine reality when it is recited or read aloud. The Qur'an is sometimes referred to as "the final revelation;" it does not deny the existence and importance of the Hebrew Torah and the Christian Gospels. But, says the Qur'an, their development through long periods of oral tradition, multiple translations and multiple sources has corrupted them so that they are incomplete in form and content. The Qur'an also differs from the Judeo-Christian texts in that its format is not narrative (i.e., history and story), but declarative (i.e., instructive pronouncements from God).

Fundamental to Islamic doctrine and practice are "The Five Pillars." These constitute the five basic responsibilities of every devout Muslim. They are as follows:

*Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim year, commemorates Muhammad's initial revelation from Allah.

There are two fundamental sects of Islam (details concerning the origin and nature of these sects will be explained further in class):

Islam is often criticized in regard to its perceived treatment of women. Such practices as veiling, seclusion, etc. are oftentimes more cultural than religious in origin. Where they are Qur'anic in origin, such practices are intended as respectful protection from danger, sexual objectification, etc., and not as imposed isolation from the outside world. Women are afforded the same fundamental rights as men (to divorce, to own property, etc.).  A Muslim man may have up to four wives, but the Qur'an states that he must be able to provide equal care and support for all of them.  This practice stems initially from the early days of Islamic culture and expansion, when it became apparent that the widows of Muslim men who had died in battle, etc. needed to be cared for and protected so that they would not become destitute.  To the oft-heard Western critique of polygyny as an "immoral practice," the Muslim has been known to point out simply that what he does simultaneously, the "Westerner" tends to do successively (referring to the West's rather deplorable rate of marriage-divorce-remarriage-redivorce, etc.).  Most married Muslim men, however, do have only one wife.

The concept of Jihad (literally, "striving" or "struggle," but often employed in the political context of "holy war"): the return of good for evil when circumstances warrant does not mean that one should passively allow evil and wrongdoing to take place. A holy war is a righteous war, intended as either defensive or to right a wrong. While one might perceive Islam as a religion that was spread by the sword, it should be remembered that idolatry against and infidelity to God are seen as enemies against whom one must defend him/herself. Westerners should likewise remember how deeply their assumptions are shaped by their Western and/or European heritage. Since the Middle Ages, Islam has been portrayed in literature and history as an ultimate evil that threatened the very life and breath of Christendom. Therefore, from a historical perspective, at least some of Islam's reputation for violence must be seen in light of, or as a response to, European Christendom's often excessive violence against them.

But the most important and immediate jihad, Muslims say, (and more in keeping to its true meaning) is the one that takes place daily within the heart of the individual self in striving to be a a faithful Muslim.

The Muslim place of worship is called a mosque (from masjid, "a place for prostration/bowing down").  Traditionally domed in the center, its most impressive characteristic is space. While there may be a pulpit-like structure from which a sermon may be delivered during Friday prayer, the only other physical characteristic is the mihrab, a niche-like indentation in the wall that indicates the direction of the holy city of Mecca. It is like a compass point for prayer. Outside of a mosque is often a minaret, or a high tower from the top of which a muezzin ("announcer" or "caller") calls Muslims to prayer.

Central to Islamic worship and consciousness is the Kaaba, a large stone structure located within the confines of the Great Mosque in Mecca. Kaaba means "cube," as this is its overall shape. Its dimensions are 40' long x 35' wide x 50' high. Its origin and traditions predate Islamic history. The Kaaba is said to have been built and rebuilt ten times, first by angels and finally by 7th century Muslim leaders. In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Kaaba was a temple of sorts that housed the images of several gods or jinns, i.e., local village and/or nature spirits, among which Allah was included, probably as a primary local deity of a Meccan tribe known as the Quraish. Regarded as the traditional descendants of Abraham and Ishmael (Isaac is recognized as the source of the Hebraic line; see Genesis 16.1-15; 21.1-21), the Quraish appointed the priests and guardians of the Kaaba. Muhammad was a descendent of this tribe. It was likely, therefore, that Muhammad was making waves and challenging his own tribal traditions when he began to proclaim the monotheistic doctrines that led to his expulsion from Mecca.

At the lower southeast corner of the Kaaba at a height of about five feet is "The Black Stone." As Muslim worshippers circumambulate the Kaaba, they will touch and/or kiss the Black Stone. Likely a portion of an ancient meteorite, it is revered as a symbol of that line of Abraham's progeny (Ishmael) that was rejected by Israel. To support this belief, Muslims will offer a compelling interpretation of Psalm 118.22-23 in the Hebrew scriptures: "The stone which the builders rejected has become the head of the corner; this is the LORD'S doing. . ." (the traditional Judeo-Christian interpretation of this is that the "stone" is Israel herself).

When Muhammad returned victorious to Mecca in 630 CE, he destroyed the idols in the Kaaba, proclaiming Allah as the one God. He sanctioned the kissing of the Black Stone, declared Mecca the Holy City of Islam, and decreed that no unbeliever should ever be allowed to set foot on its soil. Hence, only Muslims are allowed at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the pilgrimage of the month of Ramadan.

A Brief Historical Overview of the Medieval Development of Islam

Following Muhammad’s initial introduction of Islam to the region, independent tribal groups were joined together through a combination of force and diplomacy.  Within a decade, Arab forces overran the Byzantine and Persian armies, eventually extending the boundaries of the Muslim empire to Morocco and Spain in the West and to India in the East.

As the role of jihad is all too often misunderstood (see discussion of jihad, above), it is important to emphasize that there were in fact three options that were presented to the tribes and cultures that the Islamic conquests encountered:

1. Full conversion to Islam

2. Acceptance of rule as “protected” people who chose to retain their own religions; this choice included payment of a poll tax.

3. The sword/battle if neither the first nor the second option were accepted.

The Developmental Periods of Islam are generally recognized as the following:

The Caliphate (632-1258; caliph = “successor/deputy”).  The period of the “rightly guided caliphs” (632-661), also known as “the normative period.”  These caliphs included:

The caliph exercised direct political, military, judicial control; chosen through a process of consultation, nomination through a group of electors who, in turn, presented the caliph to the people for acceptance by public acclamation.

The Umayyad Empire (661-750).  The capital was moved to Damascus (from Medina); a more established, cosmopolitan Greco-Roman Byzantine city to symbolize this new imperial age.  The conquest of North Africa-Spain during this period.

Ali’s son, Husayn, initiated a revolt that leads to the overt division of Islam into its two major branches of Sunni (“community of consensus”) and Shia (“partisan”).  The martyrdom of Husayn results in the Shia declaration that the leadership of the Muslim community belonged to the descendents of Ali, i.e., the family of Muhammad.  Ali, therefore, was regarded as the first Imam (“divinely inspired spiritual leader”), whose succession was usurped by the Sunni caliphs.

Within the Shia community, various sub-sects developed, such as the “Seveners” and the “Twelvers.”  These numerical designations are based on their respective understandings of the disappearance of their Imam and the ensuing disruption of hereditary succession.  The "Seveners" believe that the seventh Imam disappeared and therefore are awaiting his return, while the "Twelvers" believe that the line continued uninterrupted until the twelfth Imam.  While awaiting the return of the missing Imam, the community to be guided by ulama (“religious scholars”), not unlike “interim Imam.”  Cf. also Ayatollah of Iranian tradition.

Law and Mysticism:

The Ulama: as interpreters of the law, their influence and tradition developed into what is today known as Sharia (“Islamic law”).  But during the Umayyad Period, many saw this interpretation as based more on the mind of the caliph than on that of God.  As the Empire spread, legal interpretation became assimilated into the various customary and/or indigenous  practices of the regions that were absorbed into the empire (while not a legal issue per se, consider, for example, the varying patterns of conventional Muslim dress that are determined by their respective nations and cultures, and not by Islam as a whole or the Holy Qur’an).

Pragmatically speaking, such assimilation and cultural shaping was necessary in order for the Empire to maintain itself over so many different groups (tribal, ethnic, etc.); but this is what inevitably produced what many protesters saw and an un-Islamic society overall.  Reaction to this diffusion resulted in, among other factions, mystical sects such as Sufism, and their pursuit of the “real” encounter with God through a radical detachment from the worldly trappings of empire and caliphate.

The Abbasid Empire (750-1258) marked the true flowering of Islamic civilization in the Near East.

Under Shia influence, the Umayyads are overthrown in 750 by Abu al-Abbas, a descendent of the Prophet’s uncle.  The capital moved to Baghdad.  The Abbasid Empire is known not only for its continued wealth and political power, but also for its extraordinary cultural activity and accomplishments in the arts, technology, philosophy and the sciences.

During this period, Muslim scholars and scientists acquired the literary, scientific and philosophical works of the Greek and Roman West, materials that had been more or less lost to the West following the fall of the Rome to the Germanic tribes in 476 CE.  Muslim scholars such as Avicenna (980-1037) and Averroes (1126-1198) translated and adapted classical philosophical thought of Plato and Aristotle to Islamic belief.  Muslim scientists did extraordinary things in astronomy, optics and mathematics.   Once these ideas were “rediscovered” by the West, they set the stage for the scholastic methods of such Christian theologians as Thomas Aquinas and Anselm of Canterbury, and ultimately the European Renaissance itself.

This period is also known for the formalization of Islamic law: Sharia.  The Ulama (religious scholars) evolved into a distinct social group, including judges (qadi) who interpreted and administered the law in a defined judicial system.

(to be continued)

Important Concepts and Vocabulary Terms

Islam
SLM
Jinn
Muhammad
Allah
Kaaba
The Black Stone
Quraish
Qur'an/Koran
Hadith
The Five Pillars of Faith
Ramadan
Sunni
Shi'a
Caliphate
Imam
Sharia
Sufism
Jihad
Shirk
Mosque
Minaret
Mihrab
Muezzin
 

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