Some Basic Concepts in Buddhism

History and Development

Even in our class discussions, it it easy to see how Hindu thought and theology can be reduced to endless speculation about cosmic and karmic questions that can never be answered in any definitive manner. If "we are all Hindu," as the video suggested, does this mean that anything goes? Does this mean that, as long as I am not harming anyone or anything, any and all experiences, expressions and practices are somehow valid in the Hindu mindset? Consider as well the assumption that, given the seemingly endless diversity of gods, intricate rituals and yogas, the authority of the Brahmin priest or pundit is indispensable to getting one through this life (not to mention the thousand lives which came before or will likely come after). Has the Brahmin priest abused his authority? And finally, does it really matter what we do or how we live our lives if all is inevitably caught up in samsara, the cycle of birth, death and rebirth? After all, even if one lives a good and holy life, rebirth is inevitable, for one must still live the experience of the karmic effects of those previous efforts. How realistic are the prospects of moksha if it is virtually impossible to imagine such freedom?

It was with questions such as these that Buddhism, in the person of Siddhartha Gautama, challenged the theological and philosophical assumptions of Hinduism in South Asia.

Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 563-483 BCE) was born in the Northeast of India-- in what is now Nepal. He was of a high caste (Kshatriya or "warrior") family and therefore lived in an exceptionally affluent and protective environment. At his birth, it was prophesied that he would grow up to be either a great king or a great redeemer. His father, of course, opted for the kingly direction and did everything he could to shield Siddhartha from any pain and suffering. But prophecies have their options as well. As we are told in The Legend of the Four Passing Sights , Siddhartha experienced a radical transformation while on a journey. Along the road, he witnessed:

• an elderly man, thereby learning the reality of age;
• a person ravaged by disease, thereby learning the reality of sickness;
• a corpse, thereby learning the reality of death;
• a community of monks with their begging bowls, thereby learning the reality of want.

Age, sickness, death and want; is there any realm, asked the shaken Siddhartha, in which human beings are freed from these facts of human existence? And so he set off on a journey, leaving behind his affluence and royal identity (as well as his wife and children, according to some versions). He studied with Hindu ascetics for six years, living at times on six grains of rice per day. Such self-denial and austerity almost killed him. Realizing that the path of the ascetic was as pointless as the path of the affluent, Siddhartha sat under a Bo tree to meditate, determined not to arise until he had achieved enlightenment.

During the next forty-nine days and nights, Siddhartha was subjected to a variety of visions and temptations from Mara, an Indian equivalent of Satan. In one tradition, we are told that in the midst of these visions, an angel appeared to him. The angel carried a three-stringed musical instrument, and began to play it. The first string made no sound, because it was tuned too loosely. The second string broke, because it was tuned too tightly. The third string, however, played a beautiful tone, because it was tuned just right (does this sound familiar?). From this experience, Siddhartha realized the truth he had been seeking. One must seek not the extreme paths of austerity or affluence but the Middle Way of temperance, serenity and personal responsibility for the self. It was at this point that Siddhartha became Buddha. The name Buddha comes from the Sanskrit verb budh, which means "to wake up" (budh ta, past participle "have woken up"). For example, upon being asked by some inquirers, "Are you an angel, a prophet, a god?", the Buddha replied, "I am awake." Thus, the Buddha is the one who is enlightened, or "awake." The point should be made here as well that the Buddha never claimed to be anything but a man. His teachings are non-theistic. Note that I do not say atheistic. The distinction is an important one that I will address in the class.

Doctrine

What is the content of this Middle Way? What did the Buddha teach? The following comprise the basic principles and doctrines of Buddhist thought:

• The Four Noble Truths
  • Dukkha, or "suffering:" life and its experiences are unsatisfactory and impermanent (anicca).
  • Samudaya: the root of suffering is tanha ("desire"); despite their impermanent/unsatisfactory state, we still crave and lust after what life has to offer.
    • these first two truths comprise the meaning of "Dependent Origination," the idea that suffering and desire are inextricably linked to one another. No matter what we want, be it an object or an achievement, it will inevitably result in the realization of its inherent impermanence, thereby leading to desire once again. Unless broken, this chain will continue on and on.
  • Nirodha: tanha (desire) must therefore be overcome; the cycle of dependent origination must be broken. No desire means no suffering.
  • The prescription is "The Eightfold Path:"
    • right understanding
    • right aspiration
    • right speech
    • right conduct
    • right livelihood
    • right endeavor
    • right mindfulness
    • right concentration
• The aim of enlightenment is release from the cycle of desire and suffering: Nirvana. Nirvana comes from a Sanskrit verb nibbati meaning "to extinguish," as a breath of air or the wind extinguishes a flame. Thus Nirvana is the void, the negation of experience, in the sense of need-gratification. This does not strike the Western consumer mind as a meaningful liberation. But we must keep this within the context of the Buddha's teaching. If "every-thing" is impermanent and unsatisfactory, then the only "thing" that is permanent and satisfactory is "no-thing." But we must be careful not to interpret this as yet another absolute. While Nirvana has been variously interpreted as anything from a creative serenity of the self to an utter annihilation of the self, it is best understood as the consciousness by which we perceive the self not as an absolute quantity but as a relational quality (sound familiar?).
• The principle of Anatta, or "no soul/self": Buddhism does not acknowledge the existence of a human soul, in the sense of a substantial and at the same time eternal reality. While Buddhists do believe along with Hindus in the cyclical concept of rebirth, they do not hold that anything of substance, i.e., a soul, an Atman, is passed on. This coincides with the Buddha's teachings on impermanence (Anicca), especially in terms of the cycle of Dependent Origination: every "thing" is but a condition for, or an effect on, yet another condition or effect (which we of course misperceive as substantial "things"). Therefore, anatta is not "negation" per se, for, as described above in regard to Nirvana, "negation" is but another absolute in which one can be imprisoned.
• This also challenges the Hindu notion of Karma. The Buddha, too, teaches about Karma, but he focuses on condition, not substance:
  • Karma as a candelabra: light the first candle; use the first to light the second, the second to light the third, etc., until all are lit. Has anything of substance been passed from the first candle to the last? No, it is only a process of cause and effect. An aggregate interrelation of cause and effect has been passed on, not a substance. So also is the karmic cycle.
• Buddhism's "Three Jewels;" the Buddhist takes refuge in (places his/her faith in):
  • the Buddha himself, as the enlightened one, the teacher;
  • the Dharma, the teachings themselves, in one's duty to their ethical and moral content;
  • the Sangha, the community of monks, particularly at one's local temple. They will support the laity spiritually, and the laity will support the Sangha materially (almsgiving, daily meals, rainy season retreats, etc.; refer esp. to Theravada Buddhism, below).
• Fundamental to the Buddha's teachings is this: one is to work out his/her own salvation with diligence. The Buddha and his teachings can show one the way, but one must walk it alone. There is no particular god who can help one do this. The Buddha doesn't deny their existence per se, but simply focuses on diligence and self-reliance as the way and means to liberation.  But as we will see, this focus on individual effort evolves in different directions as Buddhism develops and spreads.

Buddhist Scriptures

The scriptures and canons of Buddhist teachings are myriad.  Following the Buddha's death in 486 BCE, numerous teachings, stories, etc., both oral and written, began to circulate (this tends to occur in similar transitional situations in all religions).  By the 3rd century BCE, Buddhist missionaries sent forth by India's King Ashoka made their way into Sri Lanka, where, by the 1st century BCE, formal efforts were made to gather, consolidate and record these traditions into a singular and definitive collection.  Regarded even today by many Buddhists (see "Divisions and Sects," below) as the original Pali Canon (Pali is held to be the original West Indian language of the Buddha's teachings), this collection came to be known as the Tipitaka ("the three baskets").  These "baskets" are as follows:

• The Vinyana Pitaka: "the basket of discipline;" the code of ethics or behavior that is to be practiced by the Sangha (community) of monks and nuns.
• The Sutra Pitaka: "the basket of discourses;" the Buddha's teachings, and discourses, as well as accounts of his life and lineage.
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka: "the basket beyond the Dharma;" the scholarly commentaries and explanations of the Sutra Pitaka.

Buddhist Divisions and Sects

Ranging in time anywhere from100 BCE to 100 CE, there are, generally speaking, three perspectives on the emergence of the reformation movement known as the Mahayana, or "larger vehicle."  We will discuss these in much more detail in class, but they are essentially as follows:

• A "lay revolt" against authoritative monastic control of the venerated sites (e.g., stupas).
• The "discovery" of new texts and sutras that showed that the Buddha had more to reveal to his followers.
• The Hellenistic-influenced creation of a "new iconography," i.e., visual images of the Buddha himself (whereas prior representations had been symbolic and indirect).

All of these trends had an effect on the Buddhist mission as it traveled from India to Sri Lanka (3rd century BCE), China (1st century CE), Korea, Japan (6th century CE) and Southeast Asia (via Sri Lanka).  It naturally encountered pre-existing cultural conditions and socio-political assumptions that shaped and adapted Buddhist thought to the given culture's particular identity (this happens with any religious migration). And so by the 1st century CE, the Mahayanist premises can be summarized as essentially these: a) diligence and self-reliance are qualities that are not shared by everyone. Many need to place their reliance on or in something beyond themselves. The Mahayana Buddhists came to regard the Buddha not simply as a mortal albeit enlightened teacher, but as a divine savior to whom one could offer prayer and devotion; and b) the notion that true enlightenment can be achieved only through the attainment of "emptiness," as even the teachings of the Dharma, even the Buddha himself as a person or concept, can be an imprisoning link in the chain of Dependent Co-origination when regarded as "things" or "objects" of contemplation.

The primary attribute of the Buddha was seen not so much as wisdom but compassion. Within the given Mahayanist culture, the Buddha's compassionate presence was often channeled and expressed through various saint-like celestial figures called Bodhisattvas. The Bodhisattva, although already having achieved enlightenment, renounces or postpones his/her own entry into Nirvana in order to help others along the way.  A very well-known Bodhisattva is Avalokiteshvara, or the bodhisattva of compassion.  Avalokiteshvara is the Indian name; in China it is Guan Yin/Kwan Yin, and in Japan it is Kannon.

Thus, the Bodhisattva, as a communal image, stands in contrast to the image that is more in line with the original teachings of the Buddha, i.e., the Arahant, or the "lone disciple" (typified by the ascetic or the member of the monastic community), who, through self-discipline and self-reliance, works out his/her own salvation with the assistance of no outside agency, other than the teachings themselves-- the Dharma (see Theravada sect, below).

In order to give a solid identity to their doctrines, the Mahayana Buddhists intentionally slighted the earlier teachings and traditions by referring to them as Hinayana, or "smaller vehicle." Ill will aside, these names remain today as designators for the fundamental schools of Buddhist thought and practice throughout Asia. Mahayana Buddhist countries include China, Japan and Korea, while Hinayana Buddhism is prevalent in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (except for Vietnam, which is Mahayana, due to its stronger Chinese influence).

As Hinayana was originally a disparaging term, Hinayana in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and Southeast Asia is more correctly referred to as Theravada, which means, "the way of the elders."  Regarded as the oldest and longest-running of the Buddhist sects, Theravada Buddhism focuses primarily upon the disciplines of the monastic life, and the virtues thereof.  Ordination as a monk or a nun is therefore seen as the primary means to enlightenment.  Through such discipline, one can become an arahant (or arhant), which refers to an enlightened disciple, who serves as an example for others to emulate.  But this is not to say that the laity is simply disregarded; in return for the teaching and guidance given to them by the monastic community or local temple, it is the lay person's responsibility to support the monks through devotional service and systematic offerings (known as dana).  It is through such offerings that the lay person "makes merit," which will help him/her (i.e., build/generate good karma) in a future life.  Thus it can be said that Theravada Buddhism is founded on a kind of symbiotic relational transaction between priesthood and laity that is based on the accumulation of individual merit.

Due to its development and growth in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), and its strong focus on the discipline and ethical behavior of the monastic community, it is the Theravada sect that one would associate most directly with the aforementioned Pali Canon, known as the Tipitaka.  The various sub-sects of the Mahayana embrace a vast array of sutras, or traditional discourses of the Buddha, as definitive and authoritative, such as the Lotus Sutra, or the Heart Sutra, excerpts of which are included in our text.

A good example of Mahayana Buddhism would be the "Pure Land" tradition which began in China and found a home in Japan. It is based upon faith in the grace and compassion of the Amiddha Buddha (in our text referred to also as Amitabha). Through the ritual chanting of Amiddha's name, it is believed that one can be reborn into the "pure land" of Amiddha's paradise, even prior to entering Nirvana. Therefore, the focus shifts from introspective moral conduct and self-effort to that of grace and compassion. If a good person can receive Amiddha's grace how much more so can a bad person who, being imperfect by nature, continues in sin?

Another form of Mahayana Buddhism with which many readers will be somewhat familiar is Zazen (Ch'an in China, Dhyana in India), referred to more often as simply Zen. All of these terms mean "seated meditation." Zen's premise is that "Buddha" is not so much a particular person (human or divine) but rather a pervasive quality that everything and everyone embodies to some extent. Enlightenment is a matter of realizing this "Buddha-nature" in everything but particularly in oneself.

Generally, Zen is marked by four characteristics:

• an emphasis on oral transmission, i.e., teacher-to-student (who becomes teacher)-to-student
• no dependence on the authority of written texts; even the teachings themselves as "forms" can be a kind of bondage
• the self-realization of one's "Buddha-nature" (referred to above)
• the actualization of "non-duality," i.e., the overcoming of subject-object consciousness

More often than not, language is second-hand experience. Description and that which is described are not the same. One's highest experiences require one to "be there" in the immediacy of the direct experience of "knowing." Zen, therefore, is something of a protest against anyone who would attempt to locate/define/quantify the "Real" by saying, "That's how it is." To make such an assumption is to deny the principle of Anicca.

Here are some important Zen terms:

• Zazen: "seated meditation;" the process by which one moves toward "Buddha-mind" or "Buddha consciousness." It focuses on the rhythm of one's breathing, and the gradual erasing of all transient thoughts, impressions, sounds etc. that move in and out of one's mind.
• Sanzen: the daily meeting that takes place between the master and individual student at a Zen monastery. It may take the form of a kind of dialogue through which the master can assess the student's progress toward enlightenment. Often this dialogue centers on the Koan.
• Koan: a problem or riddle whose solution is beyond the realm of rational discourse and logic. Its intent or purpose is to stretch the limits of the student's mind, to open one up to a completely different plane of "knowing."
• Satori: literally, "flower moment;" the immediate experience of enlightenment. Such a moment is only half the battle, as it were; Satori must infuse one's everyday life. The most amazing miracle? That I sit quietly by myself.

The overall point: if you can't find Satori in something as simple as "sitting quietly by oneself," you won't find it in something of a more complicated nature.

Important Terms to Remember

Amiddha Buddha
Anatta
Anicca
Arhant
Bodhisattva
Buddha
Buddha Nature
Dependent Origination
Dana
Dharma
Dukkha
Eightfold Path
Four Noble Truths
Four Passing Sights
Karma
Koan
Magga
Mahayana
Mara
Middle Way
Nirodha
Nirvana
Non-Duality/Duality
Pure Land
Sangha
Samsara
Samudaya
Sanzen
Satori
Siddhartha Gautama
Sutra
Tanha
Theravada (Hinayana)
Three Jewels
Three Marks of Existence (Anatta, Anicca, Dukkha)
Tipitaka
Vajrayana
Zazen (Zen)

Discussion Questions

1. Compare and contrast the Mahayana and the Theravada traditions of Buddhism. Provide at least three examples of characteristics that distinguish one from the other. When and why did the division occur?

2. Explain the Buddhist doctrine of anatta. How does this doctrine contrast with Hindu belief and practice?

3. Explain the various levels upon which one may understand the "First Noble Truth," i.e., that life is "suffering."  What does suffering entail?  How is even happiness a form of suffering?

4. What does the Zen school of Buddhism mean by "the actualization of non-duality?" While seemingly extreme, how is this idea a reflection of a) Mahayana Buddhist doctrine, and b) a fundamental principle of Buddhist doctrine as a whole?

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