Some Basic Concepts in Confucianism

 

Historical Background: "Traditional" Chinese Religion

In many ways, religious consciousness in early China can be regarded as a hybrid of many forms and agenda, one or another of them taking precedence according to the given circumstances in one's life. In the earliest historical period, the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1765-1120 BCE), religious practice centered on divination (foretelling the future; determining answers to vital questions) and ritual sacrifices to nature deities and ancestral spirits. A variety of artifacts of the Shang Dynasty period have been found that point toward the centrality of such activities in Chinese life during this time (tortoise shells and bones for divination; bronze vessels for burning sacrificial materials). In these two practices, i.e., divination and sacrifice, we see a religious presupposition that was to continue, even into the present day: the idea that ritual enactment is somehow intrinsic to the processes of planning, living and conducting one's affairs in everyday life. The two are like opposite sides of the same coin. In short, one must be in harmony with the transcendent if one ever hopes to be in harmony with the mundane. But the "how" of that relationship expressed itself in diverse ways throughout China's history.

Ritual activities, while central, were approached and carried out more from the standpoint of popular superstition and "preventive medicine." Spirits both benevolent and malevolent, as well as ancestors, needed to be invoked and appeased constantly in order to ensure individual and societal well-being.  The hierarchy of supernatural beings reflected that of the earthly realm: there are gods (shen), ghosts (guei), and ancestors.  These entities parallel, respectively, political officials (as maintainers of society), thieves and criminals (as the antagonists of social order), and family (as the basic unit of social relation).  In both worlds, one must take take of some and beware of others.

As noted above, "family" is the traditional basis of ones relational consciousness.  Ideally and traditionally speaking, the individual cannot be extracted from the myriad relationships that define him/her, particularly those of the family unit, and then of the larger community as a whole.

A primary figure within this spirit world of the Shang Dynasty was Shang Ti. Translated as "Lord on High," Shang Ti was worshipped and venerated as the protector and defender of the imperial household, which was responsible for making proper sacrifices and offerings in order to legitimize its own administrative authority.  The ruler was, in effect, the ancestral embodiment of Shang Ti.

The period which followed, the Chou Dynasty (1100-221 BCE), was marked, at least for a time, by wise administration, cultural development and intellectual enlightenment. Ritual activities evolved as well and took on a moral and ethical dimension that had not previously been seen. Ritual enactment came to be regarded as a profound reflection of cultural values, an expression of honor for ancestors and a recognition of the need to live in accordance with nature's rhythmic patterns.

A fundamental concept in Chinese religion during this time is T'ien Ming.  Usually translated as "Mandate of Heaven," a kind of divine ordering principle of the universe that was intended to be embodied in the reign of the imperial family or household.  Therefore, if one's rule was prosperous and successful, the Mandate of Heaven was being carried out responsibly. If, on the other hand, one's rule or administrative record was poor, it would be understood that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn, thus causing the current dynasty of imperial house to lose its political legitimacy.

The latter half of the Chou Dynasty was marred by the fragmentation of the kingdom into a number of semi-independent states. As one might guess, civil wars ensued between them, resulting in economic strife, violence and famine that afflicted all levels of society, but especially the peasantry. The last 500 years of the Chou Dynasty was so chaotic and uncertain that it is referred to as simply "The Warring States Period" (700-221 BCE).

Along with virtually all of the cultural achievements of the Chou Dynasty, ritual consciousness deteriorated during this time. The aforementioned ethical and moral dimensions of ritual enactment gave way to (a) a mindless, mechanical protocol grounded in expediency and an attempt at control, i.e., "If we simply go through the motions, the effect will be the same;" and (b) the assumption that ritual "control" of the spirits and ancestors by a privileged few translates into oppressive power for that privileged few. In the midst of the shifting sands of this period, it is to be expected that "control" (over anything!) will become a primary agenda. But more fundamentally, as a result of this fragmentation, communal identity gave way to something new: individual identity. The most important question to be asked was one that remains tragically familiar to us today: "What's in it for me?"

The chaos of the Warring States Period came to a close with the advent of the Qin (Chin) Dynasty.  The name of the contemporary nation-- "China"--  is derived from the name of this short-lived period (221-207 BCE).  The Qin Dynasty also produced he who was formally called Qinshi Huangdi-- "The First Emperor of Qin"-- China's first emperor.

Who Confucius Was

Kung Fu Tze, or "Kung the Master" (Confucius is the Latinized name), was born in 551 BCE-- in the midst of the socio-political turmoil of the aforementioned Warring States Period.

In many ways, Confucius is regarded even today as the supreme editor of Chinese society. Born of low-level nobility, he was well educated as a child and grew up with a desire to pursue government service and/or political office in order to work for the enlightenment and improvement of society. One might say that he had a very idealistic view of what society could become (as do most novice politicians). While tradition reports that he held some significant governmental posts, we are told that he never found the kind of position he wanted or for which he felt himself qualified. It is likely that this was due to the fact that his own integrity was an obstacle to his success. Then as now, politics more or less ran on flattery, ruthlessness and deceit. He was simply not willing to play the game, as it were.

His primary career choice may have been thwarted but his vision for society remained strong. Confucius turned to education. Teaching was not in itself a "profession" at this time, but Confucius gradually managed to generate a modest following of individuals of high ideals who shared his visions of good government and an enlightened society. In the latter part of his adult life, Confucius traveled from province to province in search of a state or ruler who would embrace his teachings and employ him on a permanent basis. While he had temporary success here and there, he eventually returned to his home province where he taught and wrote until his death in 479 BCE.

The Nature and Content of Confucian Thought

Many hold that Confucianism, like Buddhism, is not a religion but an ethical system that is grounded in humanism. But as I have suggested from the beginning of this course, "religious" agenda does not have to be "theological." All human experience is, at some level, "religious." As Confucius himself said (and I paraphrase), "How can you hope to understand the spirits? First you must seek to understand the living." Thus Confucius' primary concern is not our sacrificial relationships to the gods, the ghosts or even the ancestors, but our living relationships with one another. Is this not the glue, the mortar, of an enlightened and healthy society?

But how does one go about addressing a society in which self-interest has become the primary agenda? Confucius most certainly encountered this attitude on more than one occasion during his quests for social change through political office and administration. And so he begins by asking certain questions: How do traditions of social behavior develop?  They develop through practice and enactment.  But if this is no longer meaningful in itself, how can one reconcile the self-interest of the individual with the communal reliance on tradition? Confucius answers that tradition must be deliberately and consciously enacted by the individual. In other words, tradition shifts from an unconscious to a conscious foundation.  And if tradition is grounded in ritual enactment, then the conscientious execution of ritual, Confucius believed, was the "glue" that would cultivate good human beings and good relationships.  At the end of the day, even human relation itself becomes a myriad array of ritual enactments to be observed with unrelenting attention.

The most fundamental Confucian elements of this endeavor include the following:

Of all of these, Li is central. Human relationship is like a sacred dance, a holy ritual by virtue of its own execution. But it is vitally important to know with whom you are dancing, as it were. Is it a man or a woman? Is he/she older or younger? Is he/she a family member (brother, sister, parent, grandparent), a peer, an employer, an employee, a ruler, a subject, a teacher, a student? The list could go on. Confucius refers to this as Cheng Ming ("The Rectification of Names").  "Li cannot flourish if people misuse language," i.e., if they do not know the proper manner in which to address and relate to a given individual. And within this diverse array of names and titles are "The Five Constant Relationships:"

Note that the family relationships are the basis of the others. Indeed, throughout China's history and culture, and for Confucius as well, the family is the relational model for every social group which extends from it (village, city, state, nation, cosmos). Confucius calls this Xiao ("Filial Piety"): the veneration and respect for all members of one's family, for it is here that one learns how to conduct oneself well in all subsequent life relationships.

Finally, all of this is making a profound statement about the nature of the self: outside of relation, there is no self. The self is sculpted in the medium of human relation. Each one of us is someone's someone, many times over.

Classical and Confucian Texts

In order to be fit a for government post in ancient China, one had to successfully complete a series of daunting examinations which centered primarily around the what are known as "The Five Classics" of Chinese antiquity, which are as follows:

Edited by Confucius himself in his final years, these formed the basic of all subsequent Confucian texts and studies, especially the  "Four Confucian Classics," which are as follows:

By passing these examinations, one could be assigned to a government/administrative post that would serve as the surest road to success in imperial China.  If successful, one could be admitted into the Civil Service and assigned to a provincial post, such as that of a District Magistrate.  This practice remained intact until 1905.

Mencius

Following the death of Confucius in 479 BCE, the most influential thinker (and text, named after him) was Men Ke Tzu, or Mencius (ca. 371-289 BCE).  Mencius' primary contribution to Confucian thought was the application of the teachings to a basic theory of human nature, something that Confucius did not deal with in any depth.  And so while Confucius was concerned primarily with the "result," i.e., the developed and cultured human being" (regardless of what he was before), Mencius delved into the basis of it, what is this human nature that Confucius sought to elevate?

Mencius saw the human being as essentially and innately good.  If so, then why are there so many "bad" ones?  To respond to this, Mencius described the universe as being composed of Qi (Ch'i), or a fundamental "material" that ranges from sublimely subtle to grossly corporeal.  The human being is likewise  composed of "inner" and "outer" Qi.  One's inner Qi can be cultivated and educated, thereby overcoming the influence and control of the outer Qi, which includes environmental and societal ills to which one is constantly exposed.  Mencius' rudimentary metaphysical application of Confucian teachings served as the basis of what is known as the Neo-Confucian synthesis.

Neo-Confucianism

Like much of Chinese traditional religion and practice, Confucianism was very "practical;" it was about doing the right things to achieve the right ends.  But as time went on, it was evident that both the Daoists and the Buddhists seemed to have much to say about the metaphysical/transcendental character of human nature and experience that the practical goal-oriented Confucianist had never really dealt with in any comprehensive manner (as noted above).  Could Confucian ethics be approached form a metaphysical basis?

What follows is a brief synopsis of the later Confucian thinkers who pioneered what came to be known as "Neo-Confucianism:"

Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073)

The “Great Ultimate” (not the Dao, although it seems like the same thing) gives rise to Yahng in movement and Yin in tranquility.

Yin and Yahng give rise to the elements of wood, fire, water, metal, and earth, resulting in the myriad things (cf. Dao De Jing #42).

The ultimate “thing” is the moral principles of the human being, via his/her interaction with the external world.

Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107)

The ambiguity of the “Great Ultimate” is (as we noted in its similarity to Dao De Jing), too Daoist for them.

They interpret this as Li (recall earlier Confucian term), in terms of “principle.”  Thus, Li is transcendent/universal principle, while Ren (Confucian human-heartedness) is the immanent cultivation of that principle.

To cultivate humanness is to establish the link with the principled foundations of reality.  Thus Li is no longer merely “proper ritual action” but the very “order of things” that we are to reflect in our behavior.

Zhu Xi (1130-1200)

Agrees with the Chengs but finds it necessary to confront the problem of evil.  For Mencius, people are basically good, and deficiencies in moral behavior are socially/culturally grounded.  But for Zhu Xi, they are simply bad.  Why?

Nothing exists that is not a combination of Li and Ch’i.

The problem is that in its encounter with and manifestation in the world of Ch’i, Li becomes “confused,” which gives rise to passions, irrationality, etc.

Therefore, one must strive to cultivate Ren, which naturally exists within, through proper action, conscious effort, good deeds, etc.

Neo-Confucianism has long-lasting effects upon religion in China and subsequently all of East Asia, in that the concept of Li as "ritual propriety" in the temporal sense had been transformed into "the natural order of things" in the cosmic sense.

Important Vocabulary Terms and Concepts

Shang Dynasty
Chou Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
Shang Ti (God on High)
T'ien Ming (son of heaven; the carrier of the mandate of heaven)
Categories of supernatural beings (Shen/Guei/Ancestors)
Necromancy
Kung Fu Tze
Spontaneous Tradition
Deliberate Tradition
Ren (human-heartedness)
Chun Tze (the noble person)
Li (ritual propriety, divine principle
De (power by moral example)
Ch'i (life force, material reality)
The Five Constant Relationships
Cheng Ming (The Rectification of Names)
Xiao (Filial Piety )
The Analects
The Mencius
Neo-Confucianism
Xin (Heart)
Right Doing/Right Being

Discussion Questions

1. Explain the characteristics and elements of traditional Chinese religious consciousness and practice.  In what ways do these beliefs demonstrate a kind of reflective balance between the earthly and heavenly realms?

2. Define and explain the concept of Li in terms of a) its pre-Confucian meaning, b) its Confucian meaning, and c) its Neo-Confucian meaning.

3. Compare and contrast Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism.  What was the Neo-Confucianist movement trying to achieve and why?

 

Back to Homepage | REL 120 Syllabus | REL 120-S Syllabus | REL 125 Syllabus | Glossary