Some Basic Concepts in Hinduism

The Vedic Period: c. 1500-500BCE

The earliest civilizations on the Indian subcontinent developed in the west/northwest along the Indus River. Most well-known of these were Mohenjo Daro and Harappa (ca. 4000 BCE - 1500 BCE).

Aryans from Asia Minor/Persia invaded this area and gradually spread throughout the subcontinent around 1500BCE. Their word for warfare translates as “a desire for more cows.” The word Hindu: from Shindu, an Aryan/Persian term referring to anyone who lived in or beyond the Indus River.  Moreover, the archaic term for India-- Hindustan-- means "land of the rivers."

The word Aryan means “noble.” They quickly overcame and enslaved most of the population, referring to them as dasas, a term later to mean “slave.” This Aryan-imposed separation, based upon the distinctions between conqueror and conquered, between ethnic/racial characteristics, and the restrictions placed upon association and/or marriage, marked the beginnings of the caste system (see below). The Sanskrit word for caste is varna, which means “color.” The word caste is much later, from the Portuguese casta, meaning “pure.” In the Vedas, caste is seen as sanctioned by the gods.

The caste system originally placed the warriors (Kshatriyas) at the top (the Aryan invaders knew which side their bread was buttered on!), while the priestly class (Brahmin) was regarded as lower. Under these fell the merchants/artisans (Vaishyas), while the non-Aryan conquered populations were placed at the bottom (Shudras) and even lower, i.e., the “Untouchables,” depending on their level of labor/skill.

But as wartime became peacetime, the religious concerns also became more intricate and complicated (agriculture, the weather, personal/communal well-being), and the need for authoritative and experienced practitioners of sacrifice and ritual became more vital to the life of the people. The Brahmin caste (also knowing which side its bread was buttered on!) made themselves indispensable, even to the noble warriors. In time, the Brahmin caste became the highest, and has remained so. More about caste later.

Vedic Religion: the literary texts of this tradition are called the Vedas, or "Books of Sacred Knowledge." From the Sanskrit vedh, meaning “knowledge”. Compare the Greek oida, “to see/understand” and even the English video!

Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, was oral before it was textual. Thus, the Vedas were recited before they were ever written down. It is clear that, then as now, religious texts are grounded not in sight but in sound. The spoken word is a vehicle of the holy. The four existing Vedas are:

• the Rig Veda (Knowledge of Hymns and Praise)
• the Sama Veda (Knowledge of Melodies)
• the Yajur Veda (Knowledge of Sacrificial Forms)
• the Athara Veda (Knowledge of Magical Forms)

Most famous of the four existing Vedas: the Rig Veda (“Knowledge of Hymns and Praise”). These are hymns, much like the Psalms of the Hebrew tradition, that acknowledge the awesome power and creative work of gods like Indra (the storm) and Agni (fire). Rain is vital to a region which knows drought and famine, while fire is the channel of sacrifice; it takes the sacrifice to the gods.

But where did it all come from? Creation is an awesome concept. The Vedas focus primarily on the “what,” while the “how” and “why,” especially in relationship to human beings, is seemingly sidestepped. Enter the Upanishads.

Upanishad means “sitting near,” as a student sits at the feet of a guru or mentor. Their fundamental theme: from where are we born, where do we live, to where will we go? India wants not millions of dollars, cows or acres, but simply an answer to these questions.

Whether they know it or not, the desires and needs of human beings can be summarized as this, the Purusartha , or “The Four Aims of [Humankind]”:

• Kama, or “sensual pleasures;” this includes physical as well as emotional pleasure.
• Artha, or “success;” this includes material wealth (econ.) and power (poli.).
• Dharma, or “duty;” this refers to righteousness, in the sense of moral responsibility and ethical behavior.

It is the desire for or obsession with these first three that keep us stuck in the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. How does one “get off the merry-go-round?” Through the Fourth Aim:

• Moksha, or “liberation;” ultimate happiness is release from the temporal bonds of the first three. Even “ethical duty” can possess one in a less than satisfactory way.

To understand all this, one must abandon the intellect and move toward the intuitive side of one's consciousness. For the answer that the Upanishads gives is that we already have all that we need within us. We would see this intuitively were it not for our temporal egos which blind us to the true and eternal reality that dwells within each of us: the Atman.

There is a difference between “self” (temporal) and “SELF” (eternal). The SELF is the depth of being by which one is connected to Ultimate Reality itself, the eternal force or generator, if you will, the “Uncreated Creator” from which we came, which keeps us going and to which we will return: Brahman. Brahman and Atman are the same reality.

How does one perceive this unity of Brahman and Atman?  It is through the experience of darsan (pronounced "dar-shan").  Darsan refers to the perception or "seeing" of the holy within other human beings, divine images (i.e., in the temple), and creation as a whole.  Recall the creation myth of "the churning of the ocean:"  the whole is present in every fragment if we have the capacity to "see" it.  Darsan is sometimes defined as a "blessing," or as a kind of spiritual transaction that we share with one another.  Thus, to greet another with one's hands pressed palm-to-palm and raised to one's forehead is to share darsan.

Therefore, we are all of a singular and pervasive reality. When we see this, says the Upanishads, we realize that there is no separation (dualism) between anything: Tat tvam asi (“thou art that”). Any perceived distinction between self and other (other as, for example, an object that I desire or that I want to escape from) is maya, or “delusion.”

Thus, one who is enlightened or liberated is freed from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth (the transmigration of souls). Temporal desires, needs and wants keep us “stuck on the merry-go-round.” One may, however, go through thousands of lives before moksha takes place once and for all.

The cycle is not by definition “bad;” it is simply how it is. The more one understands the cyclical nature of the universe, the more one is able to rise a little higher above it through the ongoing process of one's “lives.” Those who are regarded as holy or enlightened-- saints, monks, spiritual leaders, etc.-- are usually believed to have lived numerous previous lives that have brought them to this point.

The cycle is usually expressed in the shape of the divine trimurti ("three forms") of:

• Brahma (the Creator)
• Vishnu (the Preserver or Maintainer)
• Shiva (the Destroyer)

Like a soul reborn, destruction results simply in a new creation, hopefully of a higher form, but not always. Think of it as energy: energy cannot be destroyed, it simply is. It exists in numerous forms (kinetic, potential, thermal, etc.) but is ever in the process of becoming something else. Such is the relationship of creation, preservation and destruction.

This brings us to the doctrine of Karma. Karma means "work" or "action," not simply in terms of one's occupation (although that's included) but in terms of any and all acts, intentions or inclinations that you have. The doctrine of Karma teaches that the disposition of one's life has been determined by the actions of one's previous life. One's behavior and temperament in this life will, in turn, affect the disposition of one's future life. Karma, therefore, is not about luck or predestination, but about the relationship of cause and effect. If one's Karma is "good," then the circular pattern will be something of an upward spiral that may ultimately lead to liberation (Moksha) from the pattern. If not, one's next life will be something less desirable.

The problem of Karma, however, is its relationship to caste (see castes as described above). If one has the presence of mind to ask, "Why am I in the position I am in this life (for good or for ill)?", there is only one answer: Karma. It has a way of rationalizing who, what and where we are in this life and, since caste is an institution which allows (usually) for no change or movement between spheres within a given lifetime, any hope of change (or fear of change) can be realized only in one's next life. Our actions here and now shall determine the disposition of that next life. This stands as yet another paradox of Indian/Hindu culture; a nation which has tried to define itself in terms of democratic models that valorize the rights of the individual is yet locked into this often oppressive delineation of social strata.

And so how should one live in order to raise one's disposition in the next life? One may practice a yoga, that is, a method of path of attaining enlightenment. There are four primary yogas. These are:

• Jnana yoga - the path of knowledge (consciousness of the eternal Self [Atman] as distinct from the temporal ego) - inward
• Bhakti yoga - the path of love (devotion to god through actions, prayers, hymns) - outward
• Karma yoga - the path of action (carry out every act as detached from its fruits or consequences) - outward
• Raja yoga - the path of psycho-physical exercise (meditation approached as a science of identified levels of consciousness) - inward

Karma yoga and Bhakti yoga are quite interrelated, in that detached action can be thought of as devotional. It is not directed toward the fulfillment of the self but toward god. This relationship is best expressed in the third of Hinduism's foundational scriptures, the Bhagavad Gita. Literally translated as "the Song of the Lord," it is but a small portion of an epic story called the Mahabharata. The story is about two clans of a single family who are reduced to waging war against one another. The Gita concerns the moral dilemma faced by a warrior named Arjuna as he faces the prospect of taking the lives of family members in battle. His charioteer, who is in fact Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) responds to Arjuna by teaching him about Atman. The Real cannot suffer pain anymore than it can attain pleasure. He presents to Arjuna a profound teaching on Karma yoga. One must act with detachment, unconcerned with the fruits or consequences of one's actions; in other words, "just do it." Otherwise, we are enslaved by our actions (right, wrong, left, right, yes, no????). One must, in a sense, do without doing. This is Bhakti yoga as well: act-as-devotion to god.

Important Terms to Remember

Advaita Vedanta
Agni
Aryan
Artha
Atman
Bhagavad Gita
Bhakti
Brahma
Brahman
Brahmanas
Brahmin
Caste
Circular Time
Darsan
Dharma
Hindu
Indra
Jnana
Kama
Karma
Kshatriya
Manu, Law of Manu
Maya
Moksha
Puja
Purusartha
Raja
Rig-Veda
Sanyasi
Samsara
Shahkti
Shruti
Shudra
Shiva
Smriti
Upanishads
Vaishya
Varna
Veda, Vedic
Vishnu
Yoga

Discussion Questions

1.What are the components of the trimurti of Hinduism? What are their functions, both separately and interactively? What does their collective nature express about Hinduism's perception of energy, time and the universe?

2. Define the word darsan and explain how the experience of darsan is central to the Hindu perception of a) creation, b) the sacred/holy image, and c) other human beings.

3. Define and explain the nature of a) caste and b) karma. How are they related to one another? What are the ethical and/or moral implications of this relationship for the Hindu? For a Westerner-- an American, for example?

4. In what ways can Hinduism be described as an ongoing creative tension between "world affirmation" and "world renunciation?"  How and why are both present?  What examples of this tension can you provide from Hindu thought and practice?

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