Some Basic Concepts in Shinto (神道)

 

History and Development

The word "Shinto" ( 神道 ) is derived from the Chinese terms shen and tao, which translate roughly as "the way of the gods." The literal Japanese term is kami-no-michi,  (  神の道  ) which also means "the way of the gods," although all Japanese today use the Chinese-derived "Shinto."  At its most fundamental level, Shinto refers to the spiritual consciousness and ritual practices that are indigenous to the people of Japan. While it embraces a wide variety of beliefs and practices, Shinto neither acknowledges a founder nor adheres to a particular creed or doctrine. Now along with this, it must also be said that the Japanese language has no particular formal word for "religion" in and of itself.  In a sense, then, what people do, ritually speaking, is simply what they do.  The Japanese word matsuri ( 祭り ) means "rites" or "festivals."  From ancient times, many of these rites became associated with the royal family or imperial household as the spiritual mediators between the temporal and eternal realms.  Through this association, the term matsuri-goto ( 祭り事 ), or "affairs of spiritual festivals," came to refer to "government" as a whole, and continues to mean this today.  

The arrival of Buddhism from China (via Korea) in the sixth century CE marked the first use of the term kami-no-michi. It distinguished native religion from those brought in by Chinese/Korean missionaries. Prior to this introduction, Japanese religious consciousness centered around a vast mythology of creation stories about the origin of the islands of Japan, indigenous occult forces or energies called kami (  神  ), as well as a great reverence for ancestors and the well-being of their spirits. But the Chinese traditions of Confucianism, Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism nevertheless had a profound and lasting effect on Japanese civilization. Having no written language of her own, Japan adopted the Chinese script, as well as much of China's artistic heritage. Being a feudal culture, Japan adopted certain aspects of Confucian thought and ethics (e.g., the Five Constant Relationships). Ancestor worship had always been practiced in Japan; therefore, the Confucianist/Taoist concept of filial piety was embraced as well. As far as Mahayana Buddhism was concerned, its wide array of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were, to the Japanese, simply revelations of the kami to the Chinese (and to the Indians before them).

In the early eighth century CE, the Kojiki was created. The Kojiki, or "Chronicles of Ancient Events," was compiled in response to this cultural and religious influx of Chinese ideas. The Kojiki is the primary textual source for the mythological background of Japanese culture, as well as the very origins of Japan itself The development of this text was (and is) a major component in the foundation of Japanese cultural heritage and religious identity.

Also by the eighth century CE, the distinctions between Shinto and the foreign religions began to fade into something of a syncretistic union. Along with other foreign (i.e., Chinese and Korean) influences and cultural forms, they were, in a sense, "Japanized"  during the Heian Period (794-1185).  Similar to what took place in China, the Japanese began to see the "normal" activities of day-to-day life as being the domain of Shinto, while the concerns of the afterlife were served by Buddhism.  In other words, as it is sometimes said, "Shinto marries, Buddhism buries."  One could, in effect, live with a foot in each world.

During the Kamakura Period (1185-1333), power shifted from the isolated centrality of the royal court to the military-based bakufu ( 幕府  lit. a "tent government") or a shogunate ruled over by a shogun.  This is also the period of the samurai ( 侍 or 士  from the verb meaning "to serve")-- the elite warrior class who pledged themselves to the service of a daimyo (  大名 lit., "great name"), a regional feudal landholder who served beneath a shogun.  More about the samurai in class.

A significant event in this historical period was the kami no kaze ( 神の風 "divine wind"): the storms that repelled the Mongol invaders from the Western coast of Japan in  1274 and 1281.  These miraculous events added credence to the assertion that divine spirits were indeed protecting the Japanese land.

During the Tokugawa period: 1615-1868), the Japanese were unified by disciplined military leaders who sought to isolate Japan from the cultural influences of the outside world (although as far as Western influence was concerned, the Dutch were permitted to remain and maintain a small trading center in the Southern port of Nagasaki).  Since the 7th century CE, Buddhism had been established in Japan, moving through periods of esoteric court-centered sects (Heian Period, 794-1185) to those which took root among the populace-at-large (Kamakura Period, 1185-1333).  The shoguns of the Tokugawa Period utilized Buddhism as a kind of control system on the population (also as a way to control Christianity), requiring that all families should be registered with a Buddhist temple, which in effect became an extension of state power.  As Shinto beliefs and practices were native to Japan, they tended to blend with Buddhism, to the point that Shinto kami were regarded as manifestations of Buddhist divinities and bodhisattvas.  These syncretic relationships allowed Shinto shrines continue to survive along with the Buddhist sites which received official support from the national government.  Neo-Confucianism flourished as well, as the discipline of its relational ethics were reflected in the hierarchical consciousness of the military regime.

In "popular" Western thought about Japan and Shinto (as well as Zen Buddhism, for that matter), there is something of an artificially-constructed connection between the tradition of the samurai and the so-called code of bushido (  武士道  "the way of the warrior"). Between the Heian (794-1185) and the Tokugawa (1600-1868) periods, the identity of the samurai changed greatly. Furthermore, recent scholarship suggests that the existence of bushido as a formalized "code" or "way" is doubtful.  Bushido is more likely a modern, even romanticized idea that, as late as the nineteenth century, has been imposed upon the past.  Accordingly, samurai and bushido do not have any intrinsic connection with Shinto, although both popular and academic texts often present all three of these subjects as reflections of one another.  We will discuss the diverse identities of the samurai and the idea(s) of bushido in further detail in class.

By the mid nineteenth century, Japan had been isolated from the world for some three hundred years. In 1853, Japan was introduced to the modern world via Commodore Perry of the United States when he sailed into Tokyo Bay, requesting (strongly) that trade relations be initiated between the two countries.

At the beginning of the Meiji Period that marked the advent of modern Japan (1868), Shinto experienced a marked revival.  Its ancient union of ritual and government was revitalized as the shrine sites came to be seen as the primary agencies for celebrating and affirming the national life and identity.  Due to Shinto's ancient and long-standing association with the imperial household, the emperor and his family had always been regarded as being of divine origin-- as descendents of Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess (see below).   But the 19th century revitalization developed into an almost cultic devotion to the emperor and what he represented, i.e., Japan herself. Thus, "State Shinto," as a kind of religio-nationalist ethic, was formally created by the government in 1882 and detached from any Buddhist associations.  State Shinto, also known as "Shrine Shinto" (due to the designation of shrines as institutions under state control) was distinguished from "Sect Shinto;" in effect, Shrine Shinto was nationalist, while Sect Shinto was "religious,"  thereby side-stepping the issue of state-sponsored "religion."  By the 1920s and 1930s, this cultic devotion came to legitimize the expansionist policies of national imperialism.

During the Second World War in the Pacific, the military leadership of Japan found in Shinto the rationalization for the conquest of East and Southeast Asia.  This radical sense of ultra-nationalism resulted in a horrendous loss of life among both Japanese and Allied soldiers.  Following Japan's surrender in 1945, the American occupation forces, realizing that Shinto had become such an intrinsic part of Japanese militarism, abolished state support for Shinto (The Shinto Directive of December 1945), and subsequently directed the Emperor to issue an official statement declaring that he was not of divine origin (The Imperial Rescript of January 1946).  This conscious separation of religion and state has continued to serve as a foundation of Japan's constitutional monarchy so as not to allow such a union to occur again.  There have, however, been moments of controversy, the most notable of which has been the the question of national sponsorship (i.e., financial support) for Japan's famous Yasukuni Shrine, which has commemorated Japan's war dead since 1869, including, of course, those of the Pacific War.

Some contemporary/traditional Shinto beliefs and practices are outlined below.

Basic Beliefs and Practices

While Shinto is not defined by a vast array of doctrinal ideas, a fundamental goal or aim of Shinto is the attainment of makoto no kokoro (  誠の心  "true heart," "sincerity" ). When one has "true heart," he/she is open to the subtle movements and presence of the spiritual forces known as kami (see below).

One might say that the nature of Shinto belief and practice has traditionally been threefold:

Shinto's reverence for the land of Japan could perhaps be compared to the "benign patriotism" that is expressed in the United States through traditional rituals and celebrations associated with Memorial Day, Independence Day or Veteran's Day. Japanese mythology describes the creation of the eight islands of Japan, the Japanese as a particular people, no longer in any militant or ultra-nationalist sense, but in terms of cultural identity and historical consciousness. As noted above, the Emperor himself was traditionally regarded as a divine incarnation who embodied direct lineage to Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess.  In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu is the child of Izanagi and Izanami, the divine creators of the Japanese islands.

Shinto's reverence for nature is expressed through the acknowledgement and worship of a wide array of kamis. A kami  ( 神 ), while loosely referred to as a kind of nature god or spirit, is more accurately understood as a force or energy that is experienced within a particular aspect of nature, such as a mountain, tree or river, or in a specific locale. Kamis pervade the natural world and, over time, particular places in Japan have become revered as sacred pilgrimage sites. Mountains, for example, have traditionally been objects of awe to the Japanese; Mount Fuji (or Fujiyama), a long-recognized symbol of Japan herself, is one of these sacred sites.

Shinto's reverence for ancestors is family-oriented. Many Japanese homes have a kami-dana ( 神棚 "spirit shelf") on an interior wall of the house. It usually contains objects or symbols that hold a spiritual significance to that particular family. It will also have some form of a list of the names of the family's ancestors, and perhaps a statue of a patron kami that is associated with the trade or profession practiced in that family. Family members will make daily or weekly offerings of food and drink to the kami or to their ancestors. As a comparison, consider how many people (both European and Asian!) place or hang various objects on the dashboards of their cars, objects that have theological and/or personal significance.

Shinto Shrines

Overall, shrine visitation pervades Shinto practice. Some of these shrines are associated with the kami of various natural sites, while others have more specific meaning, such as the national shrine at Ise, the home of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. Since as early as the fourth century CE, it was held that the emperors themselves embodied direct ancestral lineage to Amaterasu. From 1882 until 1945 in particular, Shinto was focused sharply on Ise as the spiritual center of this "emperor cult." Even though the emperor repudiated his divinity in accordance with The Shinto Directive and the Imperial Rescript of 1945-1946, this shrine remains important as a historically and culturally significant pilgrimage site.

Today, shrine visitation is generally more personal and less "national" in nature. Some shrines are dedicated to those who work within a specific field or profession. It may be the home of a "patron" kami. People will visit particular shrines prior to taking long journeys, prior to academic exams, at the outset of a new business, at the birth of a new child, etc. Or, as part of a tourist group, one may simply visit a prominent shrine while on a summer holiday.  About 80% of Shinto shrines in Japan belong to "The Shrine Association," which was founded in February 1946.

New Year's Day is also an important time for shrine visitation. Protective talismans, amulets, etc. that were obtained from a given shrine during the course of the previous year are returned to the shrine and burned. In turn, the pilgrim will receive new ones; these will most likely be taken home and placed on one's kami-dana in order to ensure a prosperous and healthful new year.

Important Terms to Remember

Amaterasu
Bushido (what is is and what it isn't!)
Izanami
Izanagi
Kami
Kami-dana
Kami-no-michi
Kojiki
Makoto no kokoro
Shinto
The Imperial Rescript
The Shinto Directive
The Shrine Association

Discussion Questions

1. What comparisons can you make between concepts that are central to Shinto belief/practice and ideas that we have previously discussed in relation to a) primal religious traditions, and b) Chinese religious traditions?

2. Historically, Shinto has had its "bad moments." To what is this referring? In what ways are such "moments" similar to contemporary socio-political and/or religious trends that have surfaced in the United States in the late 20th century?

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